Convention Presentations & Research References
Connecting Research, Clinical Practice, and Accessible Learning
At Pretzel Learning, LLC, we believe meaningful educational resources begin with thoughtful research and a commitment to understanding how individuals learn, communicate, and process information.
As part of our ongoing commitment to research dissemination, we participate in professional conventions, conferences, and educational events to share ideas, explore emerging evidence, and discuss practical applications for speech-language therapy and instructional design.
This page serves as a growing collection of the research articles, academic references, and supplemental resources cited throughout our presentations.
Whether you attended one of our sessions or are exploring these topics for the first time, we invite you to use these references to continue learning, examine the research for yourself, and consider how these findings may inform your own professional practice.
Explore Our Presentations
Our presentation references are organized by event and topic. Each collection may include:
Presentation Information: Conference name, date, presentation title, and presenters.
Research References: Academic citations and links to published research discussed during the presentation.
Supplemental Resources: Relevant studies, educational materials, and additional reading for those interested in exploring the subject further.
Practical Applications: Where appropriate, brief explanations of how research concepts may relate to speech-language therapy, visual instructional design, or communication accessibility.
We will continue expanding this collection as Pretzel Learning participates in additional conventions and research-related events.
Research-Informed, Thoughtfully Designed
Our work draws upon research from communication disorders, cognitive science, educational psychology, and visual instructional design.
We recognize that research continues to evolve, and that findings must be considered in relation to individual learners, clinical judgment, and the broader body of available evidence.
By sharing the sources behind our presentations, we hope to encourage transparency, professional discussion, and continued learning throughout the speech-language pathology community.
Questions, Feedback, or Opportunities to Collaborate?
We welcome thoughtful questions, research recommendations, and opportunities to connect with professionals who share our interest in communication accessibility and research-informed educational materials.
Contact us at inbox@pretzellearning.com to continue the conversation.
Pretzel Learning, LLC — Bringing research, storytelling, and communication together.
Less to See, More to Learn: Applying Cognitive Load Theory to Speech Therapy Materials
NMSHA · Fall 2026
Alison Kay Smith; Preston Hewlett Smith
Visual speech materials, especially for pre-readers and their language goals, continue to be an important part of speech therapy sessions. Yet, most of the research for how visual information impacts cognitive load remains contained in other fields of study. What if cognitive load theory was applied to the visuals used in speech therapy materials? How would understanding these theories aid in building individualized speech materials? Finally, how would their application in speech materials aid in accessible and least restrictive learning environments?
Join Preston and Alison Smith, co-founders of Pretzel Learning, LLC, a speech publishing company, as they share the framework they use as they collaborate on research projects in the field of Communication Disorders. Participants of this class will walk away with direct clinical application for their caseloads, including:
1. Participants will learn a detailed framework, on visual cognitive load theory, based on research.
2. Participants will practice applying the framework in a case study example.
3. Participants will then create a case study based on challenges in their current caseload (or, Participants will be provided with an additional practice example)
4. Participants will then brainstorm, using the framework, what visual stimuli needs they may have in their case study.
Learner Outcomes
Participants will be able to describe a detailed framework, on visual cognitive load theory, based on research.
Participants will be able to practice applying the framework in a case study example.
Participants will be able to create a case study based on challenges in their current caseload (or be provided with an additional practice example).
Participants will be able to brainstorm, using the framework, what visual stimuli needs they may have in their case study.
NOTE:
The following collection includes research referenced during our presentation exploring how visual design may influence attention, information processing, and learning.
These publications examine foundational concepts including cognitive load, visual salience, selective attention, contrast sensitivity, emotional significance, and predictability.
Research findings are drawn from cognitive psychology, neuroscience, visual perception, and educational science. Although these findings may inform instructional design decisions, not every study directly examines speech-language therapy or children with communication disorders.
We encourage attendees to explore the original publications and consider their findings alongside clinical expertise, individual learner needs, and emerging research.
All references are presented in APA 7th edition format, with links to their original publications where available.
Cognitive Load Theory and instructional design
John Sweller (1988) — The original Cognitive Load Theory (OUR FOUNDATIONAL RESEARCH)
Paas, Renkl, and Sweller (2003)
Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas (2019)
Mayer and Moreno (2003)
Mayer (2017)
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John Sweller (1988) — The original Cognitive Load Theory research
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12(2), 257–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7
Paas, Renkl, and Sweller (2003)
Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2003). Cognitive load theory and instructional design: Recent developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1
Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas (2019)
Sweller, J., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. (2019). Cognitive architecture and instructional design: 20 years later. Educational Psychology Review, 31, 261–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
Mayer and Moreno (2003)
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6
Mayer (2017)
Mayer, R. E. (2017). Using multimedia for e-learning. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 33(5), 403–423. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12197
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John Sweller (1988) — The original Cognitive Load Theory research
https://doi.org/10.1016/0364-0213(88)90023-7
Paas, Renkl, and Sweller (2003)
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_1
Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas (2019)
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-019-09465-5
Mayer and Moreno (2003)
https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6
Mayer (2017)
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John Sweller (1988) — The original Cognitive Load Theory research
This foundational article examines how conventional problem-solving methods can consume cognitive processing capacity that might otherwise support learning and schema acquisition. It helps explain why instructional tasks should account for the learner's limited processing resources, particularly when new material is being introduced.
Application to the presentation: Establishes the theoretical foundation for identifying unnecessary cognitive demands within learning activities.
Paas, Renkl, and Sweller (2003)
An introduction to developments in Cognitive Load Theory and their implications for instructional design. Useful for introducing the broader research framework rather than focusing exclusively on Sweller's original study.
Sweller, van Merriënboer, and Paas (2019)
A comprehensive updated review of Cognitive Load Theory, cognitive architecture, and instructional implications. This is particularly helpful as a companion to the original 1988 work because it discusses subsequent theoretical developments.
Mayer and Moreno (2003)
Examines ways to reduce cognitive overload when learners encounter words, pictures, and other multimedia content. The article discusses limited processing capacity and design approaches intended to support meaningful learning.
Application: Highly relevant to our instructional illustrations and the question of when words and pictures work together versus competing for processing resources.
Mayer (2017)
Reviews research-based principles for designing multimedia instruction. This offers a useful bridge between cognitive theories and the practical arrangement of words, graphics, and other learning elements.
Visual attention and salience
Itti, Koch, and Niebur (1998) — How visual features direct attention
Itti and Koch (2001) — Computational models of visual attention
Desimone and Duncan (1995) — Selective visual attention
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Itti, L., Koch, C., & Niebur, E. (1998). A model of saliency-based visual attention for rapid scene analysis. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 20(11), 1254–1259. https://doi.org/10.1109/34.730558
Itti, L., & Koch, C. (2001). Computational modelling of visual attention. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2(3), 194–203. https://doi.org/10.1038/35058500
Desimone, R., & Duncan, J. (1995). Neural mechanisms of selective visual attention. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 18, 193–222. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ne.18.030195.001205
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Itti, Koch, and Niebur (1998) — How visual features direct attention
https://doi.org/10.1109/34.730558
Itti and Koch (2001) — Computational models of visual attention
https://doi.org/10.1038/35058500
Desimone and Duncan (1995) — Selective visual attention
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Itti, Koch, and Niebur (1998) — How visual features direct attention
Introduces a computational model of visual attention in which features such as color, intensity, and orientation contribute to visual salience. This provides a framework for understanding why some regions of an image may attract attention more readily than others.
Application: Helpful when discussing visual hierarchy, irrelevant background elements, and intentionally drawing attention to instructional targets.
Itti and Koch (2001) — Computational models of visual attention
Reviews computational approaches to visual attention and how visual features influence the selection of information for further processing. It supports the distinction between an element being visually noticeable and being relevant to the viewer's task.
Application: Useful for explaining how visually prominent but instructionally irrelevant elements may compete with a target for attention.
Desimone and Duncan (1995) — Selective visual attention
An influential review examining neural mechanisms involved in selective visual attention, including competition among visual representations. It offers theoretical support for investigating how multiple objects may compete for processing.
Application: Relevant to comparing simple and visually cluttered therapy materials, while recognizing that the review is not itself a clinical study of speech therapy illustrations.
Contrast, sudden visual changes, and emotional significance
Pelli and Bex (2013) — Measuring contrast sensitivity
Yantis and Jonides (1984) — Abrupt visual onsets and attention
Öhman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) — Emotional significance and attention
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Pelli, D. G., & Bex, P. (2013). Measuring contrast sensitivity. Vision Research, 90, 10–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2013.04.015
Yantis, S., & Jonides, J. (1984). Abrupt visual onsets and selective attention: Evidence from visual search. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 10(5), 601–621. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.10.5.601
Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130(3), 466–478. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.466
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Pelli and Bex (2013) — Measuring contrast sensitivity
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.visres.2013.04.015
Yantis and Jonides (1984) — Abrupt visual onsets and attention
https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-1523.10.5.601
Öhman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) — Emotional significance and attention
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Pelli and Bex (2013) — Measuring contrast sensitivity
Examines the measurement of contrast sensitivity, an important aspect of visual perception. The research helps establish why the visibility of an object depends partly on its contrast with surrounding information.
Application: Supports discussions about the legibility and detectability of instructional images. It does not establish that higher contrast is always educationally preferable.
Yantis and Jonides (1984) — Abrupt visual onsets and attention
This experimental research examines how suddenly appearing visual elements can capture attention and gain a processing advantage over other elements in a display.
Application: Particularly relevant to digital therapy materials featuring animations, sudden transitions, or newly appearing elements.
Öhman, Flykt, and Esteves (2001) — Emotional significance and attention
Participants located fear-relevant images, including snakes and spiders, more quickly than certain fear-irrelevant images in visual search tasks. These findings demonstrate how the emotional significance of visual information can influence attentional selection.
Application: Offers a research foundation for discussing why emotionally significant images may attract attention. It does not establish that emotional illustrations generally overwhelm children or students with autism.
Predictability, expectations, and visual cognition
Summerfield and Egner (2009) — Expectation and attention
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Summerfield, C., & Egner, T. (2009). Expectation (and attention) in visual cognition. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13(9), 403–409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.06.003
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Summerfield and Egner (2009) — Expectation and attention
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Summerfield and Egner (2009) — Expectation and attention
Explores how expectations shape visual cognition and interact with attention. The authors discuss how perceptual processing is influenced by predictions about incoming visual information, alongside limitations in processing capacity.
Application: Relevant to recurring characters, familiar image arrangements, and predictable visual structures in instructional resources.
Two additional studies especially relevant to Pretzel Learning
Theeuwes (1992) — Perceptual selectivity for color and form
Kent (1982) — Contextual facilitation of speech sound production
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Theeuwes (1992) — Perceptual selectivity for color and form
Theeuwes, J. (1992). Perceptual selectivity for color and form. Perception & Psychophysics, 51(6), 599–606. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656
Kent (1982) — Contextual facilitation of speech sound production
Kent, R. D. (1982). Contextual facilitation of correct sound production. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 13(2), 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461.1302.66
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Theeuwes (1992) — Perceptual selectivity for color and form
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03211656
Kent (1982) — Contextual facilitation of speech sound production
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Theeuwes (1992) — Perceptual selectivity for color and form
Three visual-search experiments investigated how differences in color and shape influence attention. The findings showed that an irrelevant but visually distinctive element could interfere with searching for a target, even when participants knew which feature mattered.
Application: Particularly relevant to our example of a pronoun activity in which one character looks dramatically different from the others. This research helps explain why a visually prominent but irrelevant feature may compete for attention.
Kent (1982) — Contextual facilitation of speech sound production
Reviews research and clinical observations concerning phonetic environments that may facilitate more accurate speech sound production. The paper discusses principles for choosing contexts during articulation assessment and treatment, particularly for /s/, /r/, and /l/.
Application: This provides an important research reference for Pretzel Learning's articulation design, including the contextual facilitation approaches featured in The Green Balloon, Halloween With Kiwi, and Fern's First Ferret Valley Fair.
Creating AAC Materials with OpenSymbols: A Workshop
Alison Kay Smith; Preston Hewlett Smith
Join Preston and Alison Smith, Co-Founders of a communication disorders publishing company, for a hands-on workshop exploring how open licensed resources can be used to create individualized speech-language therapy materials.
The workshop will connect emerging and ongoing Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) research with a practical question: How can worksheets, therapy activities, and clinical data-collection materials better support an AAC user’s participation during therapy?
OpenSymbols is a free repository of open-licensed picture symbols designed to support AAC communication. This session will not teach participants how to program, modify, or upload symbols to an individual’s AAC system. Instead, Participants will learn how to use OpenSymbols alongside provided editable templates to create supplementary therapy materials that complement AAC use. Participants will consider individual vocabulary, communication goals, visual supports, symbol selection, and clinical data collection while adapting materials to their own caseloads.
During the hands-on portion of the workshop, Participants will digitally create AAC-supported worksheets and corresponding clinical data forms that they can adapt for future therapy sessions using resources from OpenSymbols.
Participants will:
1. Identify key clinical implications from current and ongoing research related to AAC use with young children and AAC support during speech-language therapy.
2. Create an individualized AAC-supported therapy worksheet using OpenSymbols and a provided editable template.
3. Produce a corresponding clinical data form that allows the clinician to document targeted communication opportunities and student responses.
Learner Outcomes
Identify key clinical implications from current and ongoing research related to AAC use with young children and AAC support during speech-language therapy.
Create an individualized AAC-supported therapy worksheet using OpenSymbols and a provided editable template.
Produce a corresponding clinical data form that allows the clinician to document targeted communication opportunities and student responses.
NOTE: Why are the following references included?
The research articles and professional resources listed below were selected to provide a scientific foundation for the concepts and practices explored in Creating AAC Materials with OpenSymbols: A Workshop.
These references offer insight into AAC-supported communication, visual symbol organization, language modeling, and clinical data collection. They are included to encourage further exploration of the research and help participants connect workshop activities with broader evidence-informed clinical practices.
Not every publication listed was explicitly discussed or directly cited during the workshop. Some references informed the workshop's development, while others are provided as supplementary resources for continued professional learning.
We encourage attendees to explore the original publications and consider their findings alongside clinical expertise, individual learner needs, and emerging research.
All references are presented in APA 7th edition format, with links to their original publications where available.
AAC symbol selection, layout, and visual organization
Light, J., Wilkinson, K. M., Thiessen, A., Beukelman, D. R., & Fager, S. K. (2019)
Wilkinson, K. M., & Jagaroo, V. (2004)
Drager, K. D. R., Light, J. C., Speltz, J. H. C., Fallon, K. A., & Jeffries, L. Z. (2003)
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Light, J., Wilkinson, K. M., Thiessen, A., Beukelman, D. R., & Fager, S. K. (2019)
Drager, K. D. R., Light, J. C., Speltz, J. H. C., Fallon, K. A., & Jeffries, L. Z. (2003). The performance of typically developing 2½-year-olds on dynamic display AAC technologies with different system layouts and language organizations. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 46(2), 298–312. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2003/024)
Wilkinson, K. M., & Jagaroo, V. (2004)
Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014). Communicative competence for individuals who require augmentative and alternative communication: A new definition for a new era of communication? Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 30(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3109/07434618.2014.885080
Drager, K. D. R., Light, J. C., Speltz, J. H. C., Fallon, K. A., & Jeffries, L. Z. (2003)
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018). Effects of interventions that include aided augmentative and alternative communication input on the communication of individuals with complex communication needs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(7), 1743–1765. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0132
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Description text goes here
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Light, J., Wilkinson, K. M., Thiessen, A., Beukelman, D. R., & Fager, S. K. (2019)
This review examines how AAC display characteristics influence visual attention and performance, including the arrangement of symbols in grid-based and visual-scene displays.
It provides background for selecting and organizing symbols in supplementary therapy materials while considering individual visual and communication needs. Although the research primarily concerns AAC displays, its design considerations can inform the worksheets created during the workshop.
Wilkinson, K. M., & Jagaroo, V. (2004)
The authors explore how principles of visual cognitive science can inform AAC display design, including consideration of visual features and organization.
This research provides a theoretical foundation for discussing symbol placement, visual complexity, and the demands that visual materials may place on learners. These considerations are relevant when creating AAC-supported therapy worksheets that are accessible without introducing unnecessary visual distractions.
Drager, K. D. R., Light, J. C., Speltz, J. H. C., Fallon, K. A., & Jeffries, L. Z. (2003)
This study investigated how different AAC display layouts and language organizations affected performance among typically developing children approximately two and a half years old.
The research demonstrates that visual layout and vocabulary organization can influence the learning demands associated with AAC systems. It encourages clinicians to consider the developmental abilities and familiarity of the students for whom they create supplementary materials.
Because the participants were typically developing children, the findings should not automatically be generalized to every child who uses AAC.
AAC modeling, communication, and participation
Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014)
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018)
Biggs, E. E., Carter, E. W., & Gilson, C. B. (2018)
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Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014)
Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014). Communicative competence for individuals who require augmentative and alternative communication: A new definition for a new era of communication? Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 30(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.3109/07434618.2014.885080
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018)
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018). Effects of interventions that include aided augmentative and alternative communication input on the communication of individuals with complex communication needs: A meta-analysis. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 61(7), 1743–1765. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0132
Biggs, E. E., Carter, E. W., & Gilson, C. B. (2018)
Biggs, E. E., Carter, E. W., & Gilson, C. B. (2018). Systematic review of interventions involving aided AAC modeling for children with complex communication needs. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 123(5), 443–473. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-123.5.443
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Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014)
https://doi.org/10.3109/07434618.2014.885080
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018)
https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_JSLHR-L-17-0132
Biggs, E. E., Carter, E. W., & Gilson, C. B. (2018)
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Light, J., & McNaughton, D. (2014)
Light and McNaughton examine communicative competence for individuals who use AAC, considering linguistic, operational, social, and strategic competencies alongside psychosocial and environmental factors.
This provides a foundation for the workshop's emphasis on creating materials that support meaningful communication and participation, rather than focusing exclusively on whether a student answers a worksheet question correctly.
It reinforces the importance of considering each individual's communication goals, available supports, and opportunities to express themselves during therapy.
O'Neill, T., Light, J., & Pope, L. (2018)
This meta-analysis evaluates AAC interventions incorporating aided input, including aided language modeling and related strategies.
The findings support the importance of communication partners providing aided language input as part of intervention approaches designed to improve communication comprehension and expression.
For the workshop, this reinforces the importance of designing AAC-supported worksheets that provide opportunities for clinicians to model communication and engage students in meaningful language use, rather than treating symbols solely as response choices.
Biggs, E. E., Carter, E. W., & Gilson, C. B. (2018)
This systematic review examined 48 studies involving 267 children and young people with complex communication needs, investigating interventions that incorporate aided AAC modeling.
The review found generally positive results across various measures of expressive communication, while also identifying areas requiring further research.
It provides evidence relevant to the workshop's first learner outcome: identifying clinical implications from research involving children who use AAC.
The findings also reinforce the importance of creating materials that support communication modeling and opportunities for students to participate actively in language-based therapy.
Clinical data collection and progress monitoring
Hill, K. (2009)
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Hill, K. (2009)
Hill, K. (2009). Data collection and monitoring AAC intervention in the schools. Perspectives on Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 18(2), 58–64. https://doi.org/10.1044/aac18.2.58
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Hill, K. (2009).
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Hill, K. (2009).
This article discusses clinical data collection and progress monitoring for students who use AAC, including examples of language activity monitoring and documenting performance across stages of language development.
It directly relates to the workshop's third learner outcome: creating a clinical data form that documents targeted communication opportunities and student responses.
The article provides a foundation for considering what information clinicians should collect during intervention, particularly when monitoring functional communication rather than focusing solely on correct and incorrect worksheet responses.
Professional and workshop resources
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.)
OpenAAC. (n.d.)
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American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.)
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.). Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). ASHA Practice Portal. https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/professional-issues/augmentative-and-alternative-communication/
OpenAAC. (n.d.)
OpenAAC. (n.d.). OpenSymbols. https://www.opensymbols.org/
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American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.).
https://www.asha.org/practice-portal/professional-issues/augmentative-and-alternative-communication/
OpenAAC. (n.d.)
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American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (n.d.).
The ASHA Practice Portal provides professional guidance concerning AAC assessment, intervention, multimodal communication, language modeling, and clinical documentation.
It helps connect the hands-on development of supplementary therapy materials with broader clinical responsibilities, individualized communication goals, and evidence-informed intervention practices.
OpenAAC. (n.d.) OpenSymbols
OpenSymbols is the primary resource used during the hands-on portion of the workshop.
The platform provides access to openly licensed communication symbols from multiple collections, allowing clinicians to search for visual supports that correspond with individual vocabulary, communication goals, and therapy activities.
Participants use these symbols alongside editable templates to construct individualized AAC-supported worksheets and related materials.
Individual symbol collections may have different licensing and attribution requirements, which clinicians should review before reproducing or distributing materials.